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$Unique_ID{USH00257} $Pretitle{19} $Title{United States History 1600-1987 Chapter IX After World War II - International Cooperation} $Subtitle{} $Author{Immigration and Naturalization Service} $Affiliation{US Department of Justice} $Subject{war president vietnam government world soviet ii rights union civil} $Volume{M-288} $Date{1987} $Log{} Book: United States History 1600-1987 Author: Immigration and Naturalization Service Affiliation: US Department of Justice Volume: M-288 Date: 1987 Chapter IX After World War II - International Cooperation The terrible experience of World War II helped convince most nations that they should try again to form an international organization. Even before the end of the war, the Allied powers were meeting to set up the United Nations (UN). The UN today provides a place where countries can discuss and try to resolve world problems and to preserve peace. The UN also provides economic and educational aid to many countries. The Allied nations tried to cooperate economically after World War II by making trade and tariff agreements. They hoped to avoid the Depression that had come after World War I by keeping international trade free. Cold War In spite of these efforts to cooperate, Europe soon was split into two groups. The Soviet Union was trying to influence Eastern Europe while the United States was allied with Western Europe. The Soviet Union and the U.S. have very different political systems. Each country believes its system works better than the other system. In 1949, the U.S. and Western Europe publicly declared their alliance and friendship by beginning the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Their policy was to contain the Soviet Union to the areas it already influenced, not to let it expand, and to defend each other if attacked. The Soviet Union saw this as a threat to its safety. In 1955, it began the Warsaw Pact with Eastern Europe. Their policy was to promote peaceful coexistence of the two different systems and defend each other if attacked. The most important U.S. document in the postwar period was probably the Truman Doctrine (named for President Truman) which said, "it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples" against direct or indirect Soviet influence. This policy has been followed to the present in trying to help free countries maintain their freedom. The time period since World War II often has been called the Cold War, because the two major powers, the U.S. and the Soviet Union, have not fought each other in a war. Much of the competition has been economic. The vast resources and high productivity of the U.S. have made its economy strong. However, the U.S. also has been willing to play a leadership role. The U.S. funded the Marshall Plan which provided money to help Europe rebuild after World War II. The U.S. also helps to fund the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which loan or grant money to developing countries to help them improve their economies. Other countries also participate in these organizations, but the U.S. has taken the lead in establishing and maintaining them. Korean War, 1950-1953 Europe was not the only area which was divided between the U.S. and the Soviet Union after World War II. Korea, which is near Japan and China, was occupied by both Soviet and U.S. troops. The Soviets were north of the 38th parallel and the U.S. troops were south of it. In North Korea, the Soviets established a Communist government. In South Korea, an independent anti-Communist government was established. The intent was to reunite the country, but all attempts failed. Suddenly, in June 1950, North Korean Communist forces attacked South Korea without warning. The UN voted to send troops to help South Korea remove the invaders. (The Soviet Union had not been at the meeting.) The UN army was mostly U.S. and South Korean troops. It was led by General Douglas MacArthur, the famous U.S. general from World War II. The UN army was smaller and less well-trained than the North Korean forces, who were supported by Chinese Communist forces. The UN army was pushed back at first. Reinforcements helped the UN army fight back and finally expel the North Koreans and Chinese. Korea remained a divided country but was no longer at war. Civil Rights Movement The U.S. was having struggles at home as well as abroad after World War II. Though black people had been freed from slavery after the Civil War, many still suffered from discrimination, especially in the South. Often states restricted black people's right to vote, the schools were segregated (separated with different schools for black and white children), and there was job discrimination (many jobs either were not open to blacks or would be given to a white person first). After World War II, many people began to recognize that this was unfair and efforts were made to make changes. The first major federal effort occurred during the war. The Fair Employment Practices Committee was established by President Roosevelt to prevent discrimination by the defense industries against anyone because of "race, creed, color, or national origin." The states and some private organizations began to start their own fair employment policies. Job training programs were begun, too. After the war, President Truman continued the struggle for equality when he appointed the Committee on Civil Rights. The committee's most important finding was that discrimination based on race or religion prevents achievement of the American ideal of democracy. Though southern Senators blocked legislation which promoted laws to end discrimination, black people now had some support in their search for full equality. In 1954 blacks won support from another branch of the government when the Supreme Court ruled in their favor in the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka (Kansas). The ruling stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," meaning that segregated public schools are unconstitutional. The ruling was followed in 1955 with a court order to desegregate public schools. Many Americans in both the North and South praised the decision. It was seen as a necessary step to end discrimination in the U.S. Other people wanted to keep discriminatory practices. They did not like the federal government getting involved in their business. The court's decision was tested in 1957, when the governor of Arkansas tried to use the Arkansas National Guard to prevent some black children from going to an all-white school in Little Rock. President Eisenhower (1953-1961) upheld the Supreme Court by sending U.S. army units to make sure the children got to school safely. The fight for equal, desegregated education was just beginning. Other areas of society were segregated, also. Black people began to organize to end discrimination through peaceful, non-violent methods. The first major successful attempt was made in Montgomery, Alabama. The public buses were segregated: whites could sit in the front, and blacks had to sit in the back. The blacks organized a boycott of the bus system, and eventually won desegregation. Other boycotts and peaceful demonstrations by black people in the early 1960's led to the desegregation of previously white only lunch counters, buses, drinking fountains, and rest rooms. Violence often was caused by racist whites. Martin Luther King, Jr. The most famous leader of the civil rights movement was the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. He was a deeply religious man who believed that blacks could change society and its laws through non-violent means. He led the famous March on Washington in 1963, when both blacks and whites marched to Washington, D.C., to try to get civil rights legislation passed. King's emphasis on non-violence and his ability to organize and inspire hundreds of thousands of people helped give the civil rights movement the strength it needed to be successful. The federal government passed Civil Rights Acts in 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968 to guarantee equality for blacks. It passed the Voting Rights Act in 1970 to try to stop discrimination against black voters in southern states. Martin Luther King, Jr., was shot and killed in 1968. Reverend King's leadership had brought many changes for blacks in the U.S. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. The U.S. celebrates a holiday in his honor on the third Monday in January to remember his sacrifices. Reverend King's work was carried on by many people, and all the poor people in the U.S. benefited. President John F. Kennedy (1960-1963) supported legislation similar to that supported by Martin Luther King, such as civil rights measures, housing, funding for education, and measures to rid the country of poverty. These measures were called the New Frontier programs, from a line in one of Kennedy's speeches, "We stand today on the edge of a new frontier." One of Kennedy's programs, the Peace Corps, was intended to provide developmental assistance for other countries. Americans would volunteer their time and knowledge by traveling to and living with the people needing assistance. This program proved successful both in helping people and increasing cross-cultural understanding. President Lyndon Johnson, Kennedy's successor, continued the effort with his "war on poverty" and increased the amount of money the federal government spends on social programs to try to form the Great Society - a society with equality and opportunity for everyone. President Johnson's Great Society established many of the domestic programs in place today, including the Department of Housing and Urban Development (working to provide improved low-income housing) and the Fair Labor Standards Act (regulating wages, hours and working conditions). Vietnam War Era The 1960's are remembered by many as a time of turmoil. The civil rights movement was strong. It was forcing society to change in many ways. But the 1960's also were a time of protest against the war the U.S. was fighting in Vietnam. Vietnam had been part of France's Indochinese colony. It was promised partial independence after World War II. The problem was that Vietnam wanted complete independence and was willing to fight for it. Unfortunately, Vietnam also had two political parties which did not want to compromise. Ho Chi Minh led a party in the northern part of Vietnam which was communistic and very nationalistic. Ngo Dinh Diem led a party in the southern part of Vietnam which was against communism and wanted to cooperate with western countries. South Vietnam invited the U.S., under President Eisenhower, to provide it economic and military aid. The aid was expanded under President John F. Kennedy (1960-1963). In 1964, North Vietnamese torpedo boats were said to have attacked two American destroyers. President Johnson ordered bombings of North Vietnamese naval bases. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave President Johnson authority to do what he thought was needed militarily. The U.S. was at war with Vietnam. The Vietnam War was a long, hard, bitter fight, lasting from 1964-1973. Fighting in Vietnam was difficult for U.S. troops. In addition, opinion in the U.S. was divided over whether the U.S. should be involved in this war. Some people believed the U.S. needed to fight the war to keep communism out of South Vietnam and that the U.S. should send over as many men and weapons as needed to win the war. Other people believed that war was immoral. They believed that the U.S. had no interests in Vietnam and that the war was too costly. These people marched and demonstrated to protest U.S. involvement in Vietnam, and tried to get the U.S. to withdraw. While the protesters were not the majority of the people in the U.S., they did make others think about why the U.S. was involved in Vietnam. In 1968, Richard Nixon ran as the Republican candidate for President. One of his campaign promises was to withdraw from Vietnam honorably. He was able to continue peace talks which had been going on almost since the beginning of the war, but with no results. In 1973, the issue was settled with the Paris Peace Agreement for Vietnam. Everyone compromised, and Vietnam was divided into two separate countries, as Korea had been. The peace lasted until 1975, when North Vietnam again invaded South Vietnam and forcibly reunited the country. This time the U.S. stayed out of the conflict, except for trying to help some of the people leave Vietnam who otherwise would have suffered. Nixon as President Richard Nixon was the President when the U.S. withdrew from Vietnam. He was elected partly on his promise to help end the war. Also, he wanted to re-establish the strong Presidency. In his first term he continued peace talks in Vietnam, tried to control the high rates of inflation which were hurting the U.S. economy, and re-established relations with China. This last action was very important. China had been under Communist rule since 1949. However, until President Nixon opened relations in 1972, the U.S. did not recognize the Communist government. Nixon believed that to get Communist countries to change and be friendly to the U.S., it was better to talk and trade with them than to fight. President Nixon was reelected easily for a second term, during which the Vietnam War ended. The remainder of Nixon's Presidency was filled with problems, however. The Arab countries decided they were not going to sell oil to the U.S. anymore, which led to energy shortages in the U.S. There were long lines at the gasoline stations, and increased prices for almost all types of energy. After this experience, the U.S. tried to develop its own additional energy resources to become as self-sufficient as possible. Space Exploration Competition for space, similar to economic and military competition, was most intense between the Soviet Union and the United States. The Soviet Union launched the first satellite in 1957 and the United States was worried. The race to develop space had begun. In 1961, the Soviets again scored a victory, being the first to send men into space and bring them back safely. The United States increased its efforts in the space program. Experiments with long flights, activities outside the spacecraft and orbiting the moon were all preparatory to the planned landing of men on the moon. The event finally took place in 1969, during Nixon's Presidency, when Apollo 11 took off for the moon. The three men aboard carried a message of peace, hoping to convince both the U.S. and Soviet Union to stop competing for space and to develop it for the benefit of all people. Americans were wildly excited about landing on the moon and continue to enthusiastically support space programs, such as the space shuttle and Skylab. Arms Control President Nixon, though by no means the first President to recognize the desirability of reducing the number or growth of nuclear weapons, negotiated the first major treaty with the Soviet Union to limit deployment and building of nuclear weapons. The treaty was the result of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), and was agreed on in 1972. Since then, arms control has been an important issue. Leaders in both countries understand that the arms race can end only with great effort on everyone's part. Watergate The main issue of Nixon's Presidency was Watergate. During the 1972 Presidential campaign, there was an illegal break-in at the headquarters of the Democratic Party in the Watergate apartments in Washington, D.C. The President claimed he did not know anything about it. Tape recordings taken in his office were found that revealed that the President did know about the break-in, and that he tried to stop the investigation into the matter. The Congress and the American people were very upset and angry that a President would lie to them. Impeachment proceedings were begun to try to remove President Nixon from office. Also, many of his top advisers resigned or were removed from office. President Nixon resigned before the impeachment proceedings could be completed. Newly appointed Vice President Gerald Ford became President Ford. Watergate has had both good and bad effects on this country. The most important one is that it showed that our system of government works. The Constitution and our system of government was upheld. It was the 1st amendment guarantee of freedom of the press which enabled the American people to find out about Watergate. And the American system of government proved strong enough for even the President to be held accountable for his actions. The encouraging result of Watergate was a confirmation that the American democratic form of government worked even under such negative conditions. President Ford President Ford, upon taking office, asked that the American people work together to try to overcome Watergate and concentrate on the needs of the nation. He used his executive power to pardon Nixon and turned to some of the important issues facing the U.S. The most important issue to the majority of the people was inflation. Inflation means that prices keep rising and money buys less than it did before. Ford tried to solve this problem by decreasing federal spending, encouraging industrial and agricultural spending and helping unemployed persons. These efforts were not too successful and the economy fell under a recession: production and wages were down, and unemployment was up. President Carter The next Presidential election, in 1976, showed that people were ready for a change. Many people still thought of the Republican Party as the one which had brought Watergate. Also, they did not like the economic situation. President Carter, former governor of Georgia, had a reputation for honesty. He was elected President in 1976 over Ford, by promising to help the economy and to restore and promote human rights in the U.S. and abroad. He successfully negotiated SALT II - an arms limitation agreement. Unfortunately, President Carter's lack of experience with national politics made it difficult for him. By 1980, the economy had not improved much and there were problems with foreign policy. The American people again were ready for a change. President Reagan President Reagan, elected in 1980 and again in 1984, had an exciting message for Americans. He promised to improve the economy by decreasing taxes and spending by the federal government. He also promised to improve the U.S. position in the world by increasing military spending. This would allow the U.S. to negotiate from a position of strength. In spite of this commitment, he negotiated with the Soviet Union for arms limitation. He believed that reduced government interference would encourage private enterprise which would improve the economy. An improved economy would benefit everyone. Under President Reagan, inflation, interest rates and unemployment rates did drop and many people benefited. Some people, however, said that conditions for the poorest people in the country did not improve and that there were more poor people during his Presidency than before it. Two of the most important laws passed during the Reagan administration were new tax laws and the immigration act. Income tax reforms were designed to simplify the structure so that it would be fairer and less confusing than the old system. Several Presidents had recognized the need to change the tax system to make it more understandable and fair, but had not been able to do so. The Immigration Reform and Control Act was similar to laws that many members of Congress had been trying to pass for several years. It places severe penalties on people who employ illegal aliens, but allows many of the illegal aliens to change to legal status. Moving Into the Future Americans will continue to use the principles the Founding Fathers wrote into the Constitution to solve problems and make decisions about the direction the United States should take. These important principles are: * supremacy of the law, or no person is more important than the law; * republican form of government, or the people have a voice in choosing their representatives in the government; * peaceful solutions to problems, when possible, by changing or adapting laws; and, * checks and balances, so that each branch of government can limit the power of the others. Following these principles has enabled the United States to adapt to the rapid and dramatic changes which have occurred since it was founded in 1776. These principles will help it adjust to any future changes, keeping what is still useful and changing that which is outdated. As Americans continue to learn about and believe in the principles of the Constitution, they will ensure that the United States will remain strong and move confidently into the future. Martin Luther King, Jr. Who He Was Believed in equality and freedom for all people. Believed no one could be free until everyone was free, so worked for equal rights for black people. Used non-violent ways because it was the only way to change people's hearts and minds as well as the law. Had strong religious beliefs. --Was an ordained minister. --Provided inspiration to many people. What He Did Worked to establish civil rights. Attracted national attention with bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, which ended segregation on city buses. Led non-violent protests all over the country to protest segregation: sit-ins, lie-ins, pray-ins. Spoke at March on Washington. --Marched to try to get new civil rights legislation. --Gave famous speech, "I have a dream" of equality, brotherhood, freedom and justice. Led Freedom March in Alabama to show support of Voting Rights Act of 1965. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his use of non-violence to try to achieve equality. Assassinated during a protest march in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1968. --His followers affirmed his commitment to working for equality with peaceful methods. After World War II - Review Questions 1. What organization was set up after World War II to try to prevent such wars in the future? 2. What term is often used to describe the post-World War II relationship between the U.S. and the Soviet Union? 3. What movement, especially strong in the late 1950's and 1960's, worked for equality for minorities, primarily blacks? 4. Name one characteristic or accomplishment for which Martin Luther King, Jr., is known. 5. Name one positive result of the Watergate affair during Nixon's Presidency.